adequate to allow the animal to perch at a sufficiently high level for it to feel secure. The structural division of space in primate enclosures is of paramount importance. It is essential that the animals should be able to utilise as much of the volume as possible because, being arboreal, they occupy a three-dimensional space. To make this possible, perches and climbing structures should be provided.
\nIn addition to their wild nature and climbing habits, non-human primates have advanced cognitive capabilities and complex foraging and social behaviour. As a result, they require complex, enriched environments to allow them to carry out a normal behavioural repertoire. The group structure, however, should be such that normal behaviours indicative of distress or pain or those likely to result in injury are kept to a minimum.
\nNon-human primates used for scientific research should be captive-bred and, where practicable, reared on site to avoid transport stress. Captive-bred animals are of known age, parentage and health status and have been reared under standardised husbandry practices. Where non-human primates are to be imported they should, whenever possible, be obtained as offspring from established breeding colonies with high welfare and care standards. They should be free from zoonotic diseases.
\nWild caught animals should only be used in exceptional circumstances as they present health hazards to staff, have unknown histories and are likely to be more afraid of humans. In some instances there can be a significant mortality among the animals at the trapping site and during transfer to the source country holding site.
\nAdditional details are provided for the commonly bred and used laboratory species. Further advice on requirements for other species (or if behavioural or breeding problems occur) should be sought from experienced primatologists and care staff to ensure that any particular species needs are adequately addressed.
\n2.3. Humidity Although some non-human primates live in tropical rain forests, where humidity is high, and others in arid regions, it is not necessary for this to be replicated in the laboratory for established colonies. In general, humidity levels of 40 to 70% relative humidity are comfortable for both animals and care staff. Care should be taken (see individual species) not to expose the animals to humidity which is too low and prolonged exposure outside this range should be avoided, particularly for New World monkeys, which may be susceptible to respiratory problems.
\n2.4. Lighting Most laboratory non-human primates should have a 12hour/12hour light/dark cycle. Simulated dawn and dusk lighting may be beneficial for some species. For the nocturnal species, such as Aotus trivirgatus, the cycle should be modified so that dim red light is used during part of the normal working day to allow the animals to be observed during their active periods, and also to enable routine husbandry tasks to be carried out safely.
\nWhenever possible, rooms housing non-human primates should be provided with windows, since they are a source of natural light and can provide environmental enrichment.
\n2.5. Noise Restful background sound such as music or radio programmes provided during the day can act as a form of environmental enrichment and help to screen out sudden loud noises but it should not be provided permanently. Music may also have a calming effect on the animals in times of stress. For most species, satisfactory sound levels will be the same as those recommended for staff, but some species such as callitrichids can also hear ultrasound, so this should be taken into account. The level of background noise should be kept low and should only exceed 65 dBA for short periods.
\n2.6. Alarm systems Most higher non-human primates have similar hearing to humans; to avoid frightening the animals sirens should be avoided. An appropriate alternative would be to use flashing lights visible to staff in all rooms.
\nAll non-human primates in the colony should be under expert veterinary control and submitted to periodical diagnostic tests.
\nTheir close affinity to humans results in susceptibility to a number of diseases and parasites that are common to both and occasionally life threatening to the other. It is, therefore, of vital importance that there is also regular medical screening of the staff. Any member of staff posing a potential health risk to the animals should not have contact with the animals. Particular care should be taken when dealing with animals which may be contaminated by pathogens transmissible to humans. Staff should be informed, and measures taken to minimise the risk of infection. Lifetime health records should be kept for each animal. The investigation of unexpected morbidity and mortality should be thorough, having regard for potential zoonotic diseases, and be entrusted to competent personnel and laboratories.
\nNon-human primates from different geographical areas should be strictly separated from each other until their health status has been clarified.
\nIn outdoor enclosures vermin control is of particular importance.
\nBecause the common laboratory non-human primates are social animals, they should be housed with one or more compatible conspecifics. To ensure harmonious relations, it is essential that the group composition of laboratory non-human primates should be appropriate. Compatibility, and hence group composition, in terms of the age and sex of its members depends on the species. In creating groups, the natural social organisation of the species should be taken into account. In confined conditions, however, where the space for extended chases or the emigration of social rejects is not available, the natural age and sex composition of troops may be inappropriate, modifications to group structure may be required. For example, a harem structure may be substituted for the natural multi-male, multi-female troop in macaques. Experimental protocol may also determine group composition, for example, single-sex or same age groups. Visual barriers, which allow the animals to be out of sight of one another, are important in group housing and multiple escape routes provide opportunities to avoid attacks and also prevent dominant individuals from restricting access of subordinates to other parts of the enclosure.
\nCareful monitoring of animals is necessary following grouping or mixing, and a programme of action should be in place for managing and minimising aggressive interaction.
\nWhere animals are housed in same-sex groups, it is best to avoid housing the two sexes in close proximity, as this can sometimes lead to the males becoming aggressive. The only exceptions to social housing should be either for veterinary reasons or where an experimental protocol demands it to ensure good science. Single housing should only be allowed for as short a time as possible, under close supervision, where there is a justification on veterinary or welfare grounds. Single housing on experimental grounds should be determined in consultation with the animal technician and with the competent person charged with advisory duties in relation to the well-being of the animals. In such circumstances, additional resources should be targeted to the welfare and care of these animals. For experimental animals, where housing them in large groups is not possible, keeping them in same-sex compatible pairs is probably the best social arrangement.
\nWhere socially housed animals need to be separated for a period of time, for example, for dosing, care and vigilance should be exercised on re-introduction as the social organisation in the group may have changed and the animal may be attacked.
\nPossible solutions include confinement of this animal to an individual enclosure attached to, or within, the main living area or separation of all individuals briefly followed by re-introduction of the whole group simultaneously.
\n4.1.1. Breeding The sex ratio and numbers of animals in a breeding colony will depend on the species involved. It is important to ensure that both space and complexity are adequate to prevent the intimidation of individuals, particularly lowranking females and young. In polygamous species, the sex ratio should ensure that the majority of females are mated and give birth to live offspring. Where there is more than one male in the group, care should be taken to ensure that the males are compatible.
\nMonogamous species will be bred in family groups with a breeding pair and two or more sets of their offspring.
\nFor future breeding animals, it is important that the young grow up in stable social groups, preferably their natal group, with their mothers. This ensures that their parenting skills and social interactions within a hierarchical structure develop adequately.
\nAnimals will normally successfully rear single or twin offspring without intervention. However, a management policy for rejected infants is required to minimise suffering in these animals.
\n4.1.2. Separation from the mother Young animals have a slow postnatal development lasting several years in cercopithecoids with a period of dependency on their mothers lasting until they are 8 to 12 months old, depending on the species. During this period they learn about their environment under the mother's protective vigilance and socialise through interactions with a diversity of social partners.
\nThey also learn parenting skills by interacting with infants or even helping to care for them. Separation of infants from a colony causes distress to the mother and infant at the time. It is therefore preferable to leave them in their natal colony until they have become independent. Should they, for their own welfare, have to be weaned or separated earlier, it is advisable to incorporate them into a well organised group to avoid damage to their social development, behaviour, physiology and immune competence. The appropriate age ranges for weaning will depend on the species.
\n4.2. Enrichment The environment should enable the animal to carry out a complex daily programme of activity. The precise features of the living quarters, however, will vary according to species, due to differences in natural behaviour. The enclosure should allow the animal to adopt as wide a behavioural repertoire as possible, provide it with a sense of security, and a suitably complex environment to allow the animal to run, walk, climb and jump.
\nMaterials providing tactile stimuli are also valuable.
\nOpportunities for the animals to have some control over the environment should be provided. Some novelty should also be introduced at intervals, which can include for example minor changes in the conformation or arrangement of enclosure furniture and feeding practices.
\n4.3. Enclosures - dimensions and flooring Non-human primates should be housed in such a way that they do not exhibit abnormal behaviour and are able to display a satisfactory range of normal activities.
\nThe following factors will determine the enclosure dimensions for a given species:
\n4.3.1. Dimensions The following principles should apply to the housing of all species of non-human primates:
\n4.3.2. Outdoor enclosures Where possible, non-human primates should have access to outdoor enclosures. These are commonly used for breeding larger non-human primates. They have the advantage for the animals that they can include many features of the natural environment and are also useful for holding stock or experimental animals where close climatic control is not required and outdoor temperatures are suitable. Outdoor enclosures are usually constructed of metal, but other materials, including wood, can be used providing it is suitably weather-proofed. Some types of wood are approved by toxicologists provided that a certificate of analysis is available. Wood is easily maintained or replaced, can be custom-built on site and provides a quieter and more natural material. To protect the structural integrity of a wooden enclosure, the framework should either be of a type of wood which the animals will not chew or protected with mesh and a non-toxic treatment. The base of the enclosure can be of concrete or natural vegetation. Concrete-floored enclosures can be covered with a suitable non-toxic substrate. Either part of the outdoor enclosure should be roofed, to allow the animals to be outside in wet weather and to provide protection from the sun or, alternatively, shelters can be provided. Where outdoor enclosures are provided, the non-human primates will utilise them, even in the winter. However, heated indoor enclosures should be provided.
\nIt is recommended that the minimum size for an indoor enclosure should meet the minimum values specified to ensure that the animals are not overcrowded in inclement weather. As outdoor enclosures represent additional space, there is no need to set minimum dimensions for these. Where different enclosures are connected, for example outdoor and indoor, more than one connecting door should be provided to prevent subordinates being trapped by more dominant animals.
\n4.3.3. Indoor housing Although indoor enclosures will commonly be constructed of metal, other materials, such as wood, laminates and glass have been used successfully and provide a quieter environment.
\nAs height is a critical feature of the enclosure, all non-human primates should be able to climb, jump and occupy a high perch. The walls can include mesh to allow climbing but sufficient diagonal branches or perches should also be provided to allow all animals to sit on them simultaneously. Where mesh is used, care should be taken to ensure that it is of a type which could not lead to injury through animals having their limbs trapped.
\nSolid floors have the advantage that they can be covered with a substrate in which food can be scattered to encourage foraging.
\nNon-human primates require space for activity, but may need to be confined in smaller home enclosures for short periods of time when justified on veterinary or experimental grounds. Smaller volumes can be created by partitioning the main enclosure using dividers and/or a mobile back to the enclosure, having a cage within the home enclosure, two linked units, or attaching experimental enclosures to a larger exercise enclosure. These methods of confining experimental animals all have the advantage that animals have access to a satisfactory living environment and social companions, allowing however separation for feeding, cleaning and experimental purposes, such as dosing and blood sampling.
\nShould single-housing in a small enclosure be necessary, because of a special experimental paradigm, the duration and extent of confinement should be justified by the experimenter, balancing the likely effect on the well-being of the animal against the scientific value and requirements of the experiment.
\nSuch restrictions should be reviewed by scientists, animal technicians and those competent persons charged with advisory duties in relation to the well-being of the animals.
\nMore space for activity can be provided by keeping non-human primates in large groups, rather than pairs. Individuals can be isolated by training (see paragraph 4.8 below) or running the group through a race with a trap in it.
\nThe additional provisions provide minimum recommended enclosure sizes for the different species.
\n4.4. Feeding Presentation and content of the diet should be varied to provide interest and environmental enrichment. Scattered food will encourage foraging, or where this is difficult food should be provided which requires manipulation, such as whole fruits or vegetables, or puzzle-feeders can be provided. Foraging devices and structures should be designed and situated to minimise contamination. Vitamin C is an essential component of the primate diet. New World monkeys require adequate quantities of vitamin D3. As the enrichment feeding may lead to preferences, to ensure that the animals receive a balanced diet it is advisable to feed the standard diet first thing in the morning when the animals are hungry and have no alternative. The food can be scattered to ensure that it is not monopolised by dominant individuals. A varied diet should not be provided if it is likely to have disturbing effects on experimental results. However, in such circumstances variation can be introduced in the form of nutritionally standard diets available in different shapes, colours and flavours.
\n4.5. Watering (See paragraph 4.7. of the General section) 4.6. Substrate, litter, bedding and nesting material Some non-human primates, for example some prosimians, require nesting material, for example wood wool, dry leaves or straw.
\nNon-toxic substrates such as wood chips, wood granulate with a low dust level or shredded paper are valuable to promote foraging in indoor enclosures. Grass, herbage wood chip or bark chip are suitable for outdoor facilities.
\n4.7. Cleaning (See paragraph 4.9. of the General section) 4.8. Handling Various methods of restraint are employed in handling non-human primates, ranging from enclosures with sliding partitions, through netting, holding the animals manually, to using a dart to tranquillise them. Although non-human primates dislike being handled and are stressed by it, training animals to co-operate should be encouraged, as this will reduce the stress otherwise caused by handling. Training the animals is a most important aspect of husbandry, particularly in long-term studies.
\nIt has a dual advantage in providing the animal with an intellectual challenge and making work more rewarding for the care-giver. Non-human primates will respond to aural and visual stimuli, and by using simple reward systems, training can often be employed to encourage the animals to accept minor interventions, such as blood sampling.
\nThe response of individuals to training and procedures should be regularly reviewed, as some animals may be particularly difficult or non-responsive and in such cases, careful consideration should be given to their continued use.
\nThough animals can be trained to accomplish tasks, attention should be paid to appropriate recovery periods when subjected to repeated experiments.
\n4.9. Humane killing (See paragraph 4.11. of the General section) 4.10. Records Individual records containing detailed information for each animal should be maintained. These should include: species, sex, age, weight, origin, clinical and diagnostic information, present and previous housing system, history of experimental use and any other information relevant for management and experimental procedures, such as reports on their behaviour or status, and favoured social companions/social relationship.
\n4.11. Identification All non-human primates in a facility should be identified with a permanent and unique laboratory identification code before weaning. Individual animals can be identified visually by using properly fitted necklaces with attached medallions or tattoos for large species. Microchips can be injected into accessible sites (the wrist for larger animals or scruff of the neck for smaller species). As it is important to be able easily to distinguish animals, some laboratories successfully use names for the animals, as these can easily be used to identify dominant and subordinate animals, and are considered by some to encourage the care staff to increase their respect for the non-human primates.
\nTamarins (Saguinus spp.) are similar to marmosets in many respects. They are found in South and Central America, but are slightly larger animals and have larger home ranges, varying from 30 to 100 hectares. The larger home ranges of tamarins are related to more frugivorous diets, while they do not gouge, and eat gum only when readily accessible.
\nMost marmosets and tamarins show reluctance to descend to the ground and frequently scent-mark their environment.
\n2.3. Humidity Humidity levels of 40 to 70 % should be provided, although the animals will tolerate relative humidity levels higher than 70 %.
\n2.4. Lighting A photoperiod of no less than twelve hours of light is recommended. The lighting source should illuminate uniformly the holding room. However, within the animal enclosures, a shaded area should always be provided.
\n2.5. Noise Special consideration should be given to minimise exposure to ultra-sound, which is within the hearing range of marmosets and tamarins.
\n2.6. Alarm system (See paragraph 2.6. of the General considerations for non-human primates) 3. Health (See paragraph 3 of the General considerations for non-human primates) 4. Housing, enrichment and care 4.1. Housing Marmosets and tamarins should be housed in family groups consisting of unrelated male-female pairs and one or more sets of offspring. Groups of stock animals should consist of compatible same-sex peer individuals or juveniles. Care should be taken when grouping unrelated adult individuals of the same sex since overt aggression may occur.
\nDuring experiments, marmosets and tamarins can generally be kept with a compatible same-sex animal (twins, parent/offspring) or in male-female pairs, using contraception. When experimental procedures or veterinary care require single housing, the duration should be minimised and the animals should remain in visual, auditory and olfactory contact with conspecifics.
\nBreeding pairs should be formed only when the animals are aged about 2 years. In family groups, the presence of the mother will inhibit the ovulatory cycle in her female offspring. New pairs intended for breeding should not be kept close to the parental family since reproduction may be inhibited.
\nThe appropriate age of weaning will depend on the intended use of the animals but should not be earlier than 8 months of age.
\nWhen animals are to be used as breeders, they should remain in the family group until at least 13 months of age in order to acquire adequate rearing experience.
\n4.2. Enrichment The natural behaviour of marmosets and tamarins indicates that the captive environment should provide some degree of complexity and stimulation, factors which are more valuable than simply increasing enclosure dimensions to promote species-typical behaviour. Furniture of natural or artificial materials (for example, wood, PVC) should include: perches, platforms, swings, ropes. It is important to provide a certain degree of variability in orientation, diameter and firmness to allow the animals to perform appropriate locomotor and jumping behaviours. Wooden perches allow marmosets and tamarins to express their natural behaviour of gnawing followed by scent-marking. In addition, a comfortable secure resting area such as nest boxes should be included since they are used for resting, sleeping and hiding in alarming situations. Though visual contact between family groups is normally stimulating for the animals, opaque screens and/or increasing the distance between enclosures in order to avoid territorial interaction may be needed in some cases, and in particular for certain callitrichid species. Foraging devices, which stimulate the natural behaviour of the animals, should be suspended or presented in the upper part of the enclosure, in consideration of the reluctance of the animals to descend to ground level. Wood chips as a substrate will encourage foraging of spilled food at the floor area. In general, the inclusion in the lower part of the enclosure of structural elements and enrichment devices will promote a wider and more diversified use of the space. For marmosets, which are specialised in tree-gnawing to obtain gum, sections of dowel drilled with holes and filled with gum arabic have proved very beneficial.
\n4.3. Enclosures - dimensions and flooring For marmosets and tamarins the volume of available space and the vertical height of the enclosure are more important than floor area, due to the arboreal nature and the vertical flight reaction of these species. The minimum dimensions and design of the enclosure should take into account the purpose for which the animals are maintained (breeding, stock, short or long experiments) and enable the inclusion of sufficient devices for improving the environmental complexity.
\nTable F.1. Marmosets and Tamarins:
\nMinimum enclosure dimensions and space allowances * Animals should only be kept singly under exceptional circumstances (see paragraph 4.1). ** The top of the enclosure should be at least 1.8m from the floor.
\n4.4. Feeding Marmosets and tamarins require a high protein intake and since they are unable to synthesise vitamin D3 without access to UV-B radiation, the diet must be supplemented with adequate levels of vitamin D3.
\n4.5. Watering (See paragraph 4.7. of the General section) 4.6. Substrate, litter, bedding and nesting material (See paragraph 4.6. of the General considerations for non-human primates) 4.7. Cleaning Marmosets and tamarins frequently scent-mark their environment and the total removal of familiar scents may cause behavioural problems. Alternate cleaning and sanitation of the enclosure and the enrichment devices retains some of the territorial scent-marking and has beneficial effects on the psychological well-being of the animals, reducing over-stimulated scent-marking.
\n4.8. Handling Regular handling and human contact are beneficial for improving the animals' habituation to monitoring and experimental conditions and facilitate training to cooperate with some procedures. When capture and transport of the animals are required, nest boxes can be used to reduce handling stress.
\n4.9. Humane killing (See paragraph 4.11. of the General section) 4.10. Records (See paragraph 4.10. of the General considerations for non-human primates) 4.11. Identification (See paragraph 4.11. of the General considerations for non-human primates) 5. Training of personnel (See paragraph 5 of the General considerations for non-human primates) 6. Transport (See paragraph 6 of the General considerations for non-human primates) c. Additional provisions for housing and care of squirrel monkeys 1. Introduction Squirrel monkeys (Saimiri spp.) inhabit the tropical rain forests of the South American continent at various altitudes. There are various regional subspecies, the two most important are known as S. sc. boliviensis (black headed) and S. sc. sciureus (olive). In addition to differences in coat colour and face masks they also have some minor variations in behavioural characteristics. Body weight of adults ranges from 600 to 1100 g, with males being distinctly heavier than females. Standing upright, adult animals reach about 40cm body length. They are typically arboreal animals living at different levels of the canopy, depending on environmental temperature. They do, however, descend to the ground to look for food and, and in the case of young animals, to play. When in danger, they flee to a high level. When travelling they may take leaps depending on the density of the canopy. In the wild they live in fairly large groups in which females and young animals live together with a dominant breeding male, whereas adult males that are not in breeding condition remain on the periphery, forming groups of their own. Squirrel monkeys in captivity have been known to live for up to twenty-five years.
\n2.3. Humidity A range of 40 to 70 % is adequate for this species.
\n2.4. Lighting As tropical-forest dwellers, squirrel monkeys are adapted to diffuse lighting. Nevertheless, for animals without access to outdoor enclosures, areas with high intensities of light similar to daylight should be provided. The light spectrum should resemble daylight even though the light intensity need not be that of bright sunshine. A 12 hour/12hour light and dark cycle is appropriate. The daylight period should not be less than eight hours. The addition of a UV component or time-limited exposure to UV lamps would enable essential vitamin D3 synthesis in skin.
\n2.5. Noise (See paragraph 2.5. of the General considerations for non-human primates) 2.6. Alarm systems (See paragraph 2.6. of the General considerations for non-human primates) 3. Health Squirrel monkeys may be silent carriers of a herpes virus (Saimirine herpesvirus 1, syn. Herpesvirus tamarinus, herpes T, Herpesvirus platyrrhinae), which, when transmitted to marmosets, may prove fatal. It is, therefore, recommended to not keep these two animal species in the same units unless tests have shown the colonies to be free from this viral infection.
\nFor breeding purposes a group of seven to ten females kept with one or two males appears to be adequate. Breeding groups should have visual contact, but should be prevented from physical contact, with other groups.
\nNewborn animals are carried on the backs of their mothers until they are about 6 months old. However, they leave their mothers for exploration or are carried by close relatives at quite an early stage. They thus learn to socialise and, frequently through vocalisations, discover what may be dangerous or beneficial for them. The animals take up solid food from the age of three months onward. Nevertheless it is recommended that young animals should not be separated from their families before 6 months of age or, if hand feeding is necessary, they can be placed for adoption by another female, if possible, in their natal group. Squirrel monkeys reach sexual maturity at about the age of 3 years.
\nBreeding groups, once established, should not be disturbed, to avoid reduction in breeding performance. Major environmental and social changes should thus be avoided.
\n4.2. Enrichment As arboreal animals, squirrel monkeys need sufficient climbing possibilities which can be provided by wire-mesh walls, poles, chains or ropes. Though they do leap over gaps if provided with structures, they prefer to run along or swing on horizontal and diagonal branches or rope bridges. Perches or nest boxes where they can sit huddled together for resting and sleep will be utilised.
\nA solid base with a substrate encourages foraging activity and play. The animals should be offered a choice of sites within the enclosure to allow for activity, to enable them to retreat from social contact and to allow them to select comfortable temperatures and lighting conditions.
\n4.3. Enclosures - dimensions and flooring Table F.2. Squirrel Monkeys:
\nMinimum enclosure dimensions and space allowances * Animals should only be kept singly under exceptional circumstances (see paragraph 4.1). Squirrel monkeys should preferably be kept in groups of 4 or more animals.
\n4.4. Feeding Squirrel monkeys require a high protein intake. As with other South American species, squirrel monkeys require high levels of vitamin D3 in addition to vitamin C. Pregnant females are susceptible to folic acid deficiency, and should be provided with an appropriate powder or liquid supplement containing synthetic folic acid.
\n4.5. Watering (See paragraph 4.7. of the General section) 4.6. Substrate, litter, bedding and nesting material (See paragraph 4.6. of the General considerations for non-human primates) 4.7. Cleaning (See paragraph 4.9. of the General section) 4.8. Handling Squirrel monkeys can be trained to come forward for titbits or drinks as rewards. They are also capable of learning how to solve tasks for reward. For catching for investigation or treatment, animals should be trained to enter gangways with trap cages or individual enclosures.
\n4.9. Humane killing (See paragraph 4.11. of the General section) 4.10. Records (See paragraph 4.10. of the General considerations for non-human primates) 4.11. Identification (See paragraph 4.11. of the General considerations for non-human primates) 5. Training of personnel (See paragraph 5 of the General considerations for non-human primates) 6. Transport (See paragraph 6 of the General considerations for non-human primates) d. Additional provisions for housing and care of macaques and vervets 1. Introduction The three species of macaque which are most commonly kept in laboratories all originate from Asia: Macaca mulatta (the rhesus monkey), Macaca fascicularis (the long-tailed, crab-eating or cynomolgus macaque) and Macaca arctoides (the stump-tailed or bear macaque). The vervet (Cercopithecus aethiops or Chlorocebus aethiops) is a rather similar type of African monkey sometimes kept in laboratories. In the wild, all of these species live in matriarchal multi-male/multi-female groups. There are both male and female dominance hierarchies and females form kinship groups within the troop. Social bonds are strongest between related females, and males compete for access to females in oestrus. Two species, the rhesus monkey and stump-tailed macaque live in warm to temperate climates, while the long-tailed macaque is an exclusively tropical species which particularly favours mangrove swamps and often forages in water. The long-tailed macaque is the most arboreal of the four species and the stump-tailed macaque the most terrestrial. The vervet has a wide range of African habitats, including open grasslands, forests and mountains, with climatic conditions ranging from warm temperate to tropical.
\nRhesus monkeys are seasonal breeders while the other species breed all year round in captivity. All the species have a predominantly vegetarian diet, although they may also feed on insects. Macaques and vervets in captivity have been known to live for more than thirty years.
\n2.3. Humidity (See paragraph 2.3. of the General considerations for non-human primates) 2.4. Lighting (See paragraph 2.4. of the General considerations for non-human primates) 2.5. Noise (See paragraph 2.5. of the General considerations for non-human primates) 2.6. Alarm systems (See paragraph 2.6. in the General considerations for non-human primates) 3. Health Old World monkeys belong to the most susceptible species for tuberculosis and a high percentage of Asiatic macaques in the wild are silent carriers of Herpes B (syn. Herpes simiae, Cercopithicine herpesvirus 1). Vervets may also be susceptible to Marburg Virus and Ebola Virus.
\nShould larger groupings be feasible, this should be encouraged.
\nSame-sex groups are most easily created at the time when the animals are separated from their mothers. With all social housing, staff should be vigilant to ensure that aggression is minimised. Vervet colonies are particularly prone to outbreaks of violence, especially after any form of disturbance to the group.
\nBreeding groups in captivity will usually be composed of one male and six to twelve females. With larger groups, to improve conception rates, two males can be included. If one male is considerably younger than the other, competition between them will be reduced. Where linked enclosures are used, care should be taken to monitor female-female aggression when the male is out of sight in the other part of the enclosure.
\nThe age of removal of young macaques from their mothers is an important consideration for the breeding female, future breeders and stock animals. The young should not normally be separated from their mothers earlier than 8 months of age, preferably 12 months, apart from infants which are unable to be reared by their mother, for example due to poor lactation, injury or illness. To avoid major behavioural disturbances, such hand-reared animals should be re-integrated with other compatible animals as soon as possible. Separation before six months can cause distress and may lead to persistent behavioural and physiological abnormalities.
\n4.2. Enrichment These animals, having advanced cognitive capabilities, require a suitably complex environment. A solid floor, which can be enriched by providing a non-toxic substrate, will allow for the concealment of scattered food items and encourage foraging. The enclosures should include vertical and diagonal structures for climbing, facilitating the use of the whole volume of the enclosure. Shelves and perches should not be placed one above the other. A space should be left between the shelf and enclosure wall to allow for the animal to suspend its tail freely.
\nLadders, perches and toys to chew are all of value. In larger enclosures, a water tank (which is easily emptied) is particularly valuable for M. fascicularis but M. mulatta will also use it. Food can be dropped into the water for the long-tailed macaque and it will dive to retrieve it.
\nDevices to encourage foraging (ranging from food scattered in the substrate to puzzle-feeders) have proved effective. Suitable food material can be placed on the mesh roof to encourage the animals to access it from the top of the enclosure. As novelty is important, toys should be provided and exchanged frequently.
\n4.3. Enclosures - dimensions and flooring For the animals to feel secure, the design and interior dimensions of the enclosure should at least allow them to climb above human eye level.
\nHousing the animals in groups and in enclosures larger than the minimum group sizes and enclosure dimensions proposed in table F.3 should be encouraged Table F.3. Macaques and vervets:
\nMinimum enclosure dimensions and space allowances* * Animals should only be kept singly under exceptional circumstances (see paragraph 4.1). ** An enclosure of minimum dimensions may hold up to three animals *** An enclosure of minimum dimensions may hold up to two animals **** In breeding colonies no additional space/volume allowance is required for young animals up to 2 years of age housed with their mother.
\nAnimals should be housed in indoor enclosures providing appropriate environmental conditions of sufficient size to permit all animals to be provided with at least the minimum space allowances set out in table F.3 above.
\nIn certain climates, it may be possible to hold breeding and stock animals in entirely outdoor enclosures if adequate shelter from climatic extremes is provided.
\n4.4. Feeding (See paragraph 4.4. in the General considerations for non-human primates) 4.5 Watering (See paragraph 4.7. of the General section) 4.6. Substrate, litter, bedding and nesting material (See paragraphs 4.3. and 4.6. of the General considerations for non-human primates) 4.7. Cleaning (See paragraph 4.9. of the General section) 4.8. Handling Macaques can easily be trained to co-operate in simple routine procedures such as injections or blood sampling and to come to an accessible part of the enclosure.
\n4.9. Humane killing (See paragraph 4.11. of the General section) 4.10. Records (See paragraph 4.10. of the General considerations for non-human primates) 4.11. Identification (See paragraph 4.11. of the General considerations for non-human primates) 5. Training of personnel (See paragraph 5 of the General considerations for non-human primates) 6. Transport (See paragraph 6 of the General considerations for non-human primates) e. Additional provisions for housing and care of baboons 1. Introduction Baboons include three genera, Papio, Theropithecus and Mandrillus, in which the commonly used species are Papio papio (Guinea baboon) and Papio anubis (Olive baboon).
\nBaboons inhabit woodlands and savannahs, including arid steppes and mountain deserts. They are heavily built terrestrial and quadrupedal animals. They display a great prognathism. Males are equipped with large canines.
\nBaboons are omnivorous and eat a wide variety of foods, mostly vegetarian (fruit and roots), although they do eat insects and occasionally mammal prey such as young gazelles or other non-human primates.
\nPapio papio and Papio anubis live in multi-male/multi-female groups.
\nBaboons in captivity have been known to live for more than thirty-five years.
\nThe following guidelines are relevant to Papio papio and Papio anubis.
\n2.3. Humidity (See paragraph 2.3. of the General considerations for non-human primates) 2.4. Lighting (See paragraph 2.4. of the General considerations for non-human primates) 2.5. Noise (See paragraph 2.5. of the General considerations for non-human primates) 2.6. Alarm system (See paragraph 2.6. of the General considerations for non-human primates) 3. Health (See paragraph 3 of the General considerations for non-human primates) 4. Housing, enrichment and care 4.1. Housing Adults and juveniles should be kept with social companions.
\nStock animals can be kept in compatible same-sex groups. Wherever possible, experimental animals should be kept in same-sex pairs or groups.
\nBreeding groups should be composed of one male and six to seven females, or two males and twelve to fifteen females. Larger groups may be much more difficult to manage. Staff should be vigilant to ensure that aggression is minimised. Baboon colonies are particularly prone to outbreaks of aggression, especially after any form of disturbance to the group.
\nThe young should not normally be separated from their mothers before eight months of age, preferably twelve months, apart from infants which have been rejected or whose mother is not lactating adequately, or other veterinary reasons.
\n4.2. Enrichment Baboons, having advanced cognitive capabilities, require a suitably complex environment. A solid floor, which can be enriched by providing a non-toxic substrate, will allow for the concealment of scattered food items and encourage foraging.
\nLadders, perches and toys to chew are all of value. Food may be placed on the mesh roof to encourage the animals to access it from the top of the enclosure. Due to the size and the behavioural needs of baboons, enclosures should be robust and include broad shelves and blocks. As novelty is important, toys should be provided and exchanged frequently.
\n4.3. Enclosures - dimensions and flooring:
\nFor the animals to feel secure, the design and interior dimension of the enclosure should be at least high enough to allow them to climb above human eye level.
\nHousing the animals in groups and in enclosures larger than the minimum group sizes and enclosures dimensions proposed in table F.4 should be encouraged Table F.4. Baboons: Minimum enclosure dimensions and space allowances * * Animals should only be kept singly under exceptional circumstances (see paragraph 4.1.). ** An enclosure of minimum dimensions may hold up to 2 animals. *** In breeding colonies no additional space/volume allowance is required for young animals up to 2 years of age housed with their mother.
\nAnimals should be housed in indoor enclosures providing appropriate environmental conditions of sufficient size to permit all animals to be provided with at least the minimum space allowances set out in table F.4.above.
\nIn certain climates, it may be possible to hold breeding and stock animals in entirely outdoor enclosures if adequate shelter from climatic extremes is provided.
\nEnclosures should have a solid floor.
\n4.4. Feeding (See paragraph 4.4. of the General considerations for non-human primates) 4.5. Watering (See paragraph 4.7. of the General section) 4.6. Substrate, litter, bedding and nesting material (See paragraphs 4.3. and 4.6. of the General considerations for non-human primates) 4.7. Cleaning (See paragraph 4.9. of the General section) 4.8. Handling Baboons can be easily trained to co-operate in simple routine procedures such as injections or blood sampling and to come to an accessible part of the enclosure. However, for personnel safety considerations, great care should be taken in handling adult animals and suitable restraint deployed.
\n4.9. Humane killing (See paragraph 4.11. of the General section) 4.10. Records (See paragraph 4.10. of the General considerations for non-human primates) 4.11. Identification (See paragraph 4.11. of the General considerations for non-human primates) 5. Training of personnel (See paragraph 5 of the General considerations for non-human primates) 6. Transport (See paragraph 6 of the General considerations for non-human primates) G. Species-specific provisions for farm animals and mini-pigs a. General considerations 1. Introduction For the purposes of this document the term \"farm animals\" includes cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, mini-pigs and equines, including horses, ponies, donkeys and mules.
\nThe use of farm animals in research varies from applied experiments under farm conditions to more fundamental studies in agricultural, veterinary or biomedical research carried out under laboratory conditions. In the former case, it is important that the housing and management conditions, whilst taking due account of animal health and welfare, produce information which can be reliably applied to commercial farm conditions. In the latter case, where more invasive procedures are frequently involved, a different type of housing and management is necessary. The precise nature of the housing adopted should be suitable to yield information of relevance to the experimental question and appropriate for the procedures involved.
\nManagement systems for all farm animals should accommodate their natural behaviour, in particular the need to graze or forage, exercise and socialise. Farm animals are held in a number of different types of enclosures, often dependent on experimental requirements. For example, farm animals may be held on pasture, in open-sided buildings with access to open yards, in enclosed buildings with natural ventilation or in specialised buildings for quarantine and biocontainment with natural or forced ventilation.
\nDuring agricultural research, when the aim of the research requires that the animals are kept under similar conditions to those under which commercial farm animals are kept, the keeping of the animals should at least conform with the standards laid down in the European Convention for the Protection of Animals kept for Farming Purposes (ETS No. 87) and in the related recommendations.
\nThey will seek shelter against driving rain and strong wind, and protection from intense sun. Where they are kept in enclosures exposed to outdoor conditions, shelter and shade and a reasonably dry lying area should be provided. Shelters should be carefully positioned taking these factors into consideration. Sufficient shelter should be provided to protect all animals from adverse climatic conditions.
\nAnimals held outdoors or in buildings with natural ventilation will be exposed to ambient environmental conditions. Animals should not be restricted to such areas under climatic conditions which may cause the animals distress.
\nEnvironmental parameters, in particular temperature and humidity, are strictly interrelated and should not be considered in isolation.
\n2.1. Ventilation All farm animals are sensitive to respiratory problems. In the absence of mechanical ventilation, as is the case in a significant number of farm animal buildings, it is important to ensure that suitable air quality is provided by natural ventilation (see paragraph 2.1.1. of the General section).
\nDust levels in the air from feed and bedding should be minimised.
\n2.2. Temperature The thermoneutral zones of farm species vary considerably, depending on the conditions to which the animals are acclimatised. Farm animals living outdoors develop a thick layer of hair/wool during the winter months to help them to tolerate low temperatures. They may acclimatise to lower temperatures indoors even without the growth of winter coats, provided the relative humidity is low, draughts are avoided and they have a lying area with sufficient bedding material. In indoor enclosures it is therefore important to avoid wide fluctuations and sudden changes in temperature, particularly when moving animals between indoor and outdoor accommodation. As farm animals may suffer from heat stress, during periods of high temperature it is important to ensure that appropriate measures, for example the shearing of sheep and provision of shaded lying areas, are in place to avoid welfare problems.
\nAppropriate temperature ranges are dependent on a number of factors including, for example, breed, age, caloric intake, weight, stage of lactation and type of environment.
\n2.3. Humidity Under natural conditions, farm animals are exposed to, and tolerate well, a wide range of relative humidities. In controlled environments extremes and sudden wide fluctuations of humidity should be avoided, as both high and low humidity can predispose animals to disease.
\nIn indoor enclosures, buildings should be designed with sufficient ventilation to prevent prolonged periods of high humidity, as this may cause excessive dampness in the animal enclosures, predisposing the animals to respiratory disease, foot-rot and other infectious conditions.
\n2.4. Lighting Farm species have evolved to live in different conditions; for example ruminants graze and rest during daylight in open grassland, whereas pigs show crepuscular activity in woodland areas. Provision of adequate light is important for all farm animal species, and natural light is preferred where possible.
\nWhere this is not provided, the light part of the photoperiod should be within a range of eight to twelve hours daily, or should reproduce natural light cycles. A controlled photoperiod may be needed for breeding and for some experimental procedures.
\nSufficient natural or artificial light should also be available for inspection of groups and individuals.
\nWhere windows are provided, breakable glass should be screened using a protective physical barrier or be situated out of reach of the animals.
\n2.5. Noise Unavoidable background noise from, for example, ventilation equipment, should be minimised, and sudden noises should be avoided. Handling and restraint facilities should be designed and operated to minimise noise during use.
\n2.6. Alarm systems (See paragraph 2.6. of the General section) 3. Health 3.1. Disease control As farm animals are often sourced from commercial farms, it is important that measures are taken to ensure that animals of a suitable health status are obtained. Mixing animals from different sources is a particular risk.
\nPreventive medicine programmes should be developed on the basis of veterinary advice for all farm species, and appropriate vaccination regimes adopted as necessary.
\nFoot care management, parasite control measures and nutritional management are essential parts of all farm-animal health programmes. Regular dental examinations and respiratory disease preventive measures are of particular importance in equine programmes.
\nRegular review of production indices and condition scoring should also be included. Care is needed to ensure that any substrate provided does not introduce or promote growth of infectious agents or parasites.
\n3.2. Behavioural abnormalities Behavioural abnormalities such as tail, ear or flank chewing or biting, wool pulling, navel sucking, weaving and crib biting can occur as a consequence of poor husbandry or environmental conditions, social isolation, or from boredom due to long periods of inactivity. If such abnormalities occur, measures should be taken immediately to rectify these deficiencies including, for example, a review of environmental factors and management practices.
\n3.3. Husbandry Disbudding, dehorning of adult animals, castration and tail docking should not be done unless justified on welfare or veterinary grounds. When those techniques are carried out, appropriate anaesthesia and analgesia should be provided.
\n3.4. Neonatal care High standards of stockmanship and care are necessary for successful rearing of farm animals during the neonatal period.
\nSuitable accommodation, with a dry clean area, should be provided for peri-parturient and neonatal animals. Facilities should be designed to facilitate observation and be maintained to high hygiene standards, as young animals are particularly susceptible to infections.
\nAll neonates should receive adequate amounts of colostrum as soon as possible after birth, and preferably within four hours.
\nAdequate supplies of colostrum should be available for use in emergencies.
\nSuitable feeding practices should be in place to allow normal growth and development, with access to roughage provided to ruminants from two weeks of age.
\nAs neonatal animals have poor thermo-regulatory control, particular care is needed to ensure that suitable temperatures are provided and maintained. A supplementary local heat source may be required, although care is needed to avoid the risk of injury, such as burns, and accidental fires.
\nTo reduce the risk of mis-mothering or rejection, it is important that a strong maternal bond is allowed to develop during the first few days of life. During this period it is important to minimise handling or management procedures, such as transport, castration or tagging, that may disrupt this relationship or prevent the young animals accessing sufficient amounts of colostrum or milk.
\nWeaning strategies should be given due consideration to minimise stress in the mother and offspring. Weaning into groups of animals of similar ages facilitates the development of compatible and stable social structures.
\nNaturally reared pigs and mini-pigs should not be weaned before four weeks of age, lambs, kids and beef calves before six weeks of age and equines before twenty weeks of age, unless there is justification on veterinary or welfare grounds.
\nFor animals which are artificially reared, commonly dairy calves, appropriate feeding regimes should be provided to satisfy nutritional requirements, and in the case of ruminants, to promote normal rumen development.
\nEarly weaning from the dam on experimental or veterinary grounds should be determined in consultation with the animal technician and with the competent person charged with advisory duties in relation to the well-being of the animals. In such circumstances, additional attention and means should be targeted to the welfare and care of these animals.
\nWhen kept in groups, a defined hierarchy is quickly established. Some aggressive interaction may be encountered during initial grouping while relative rankings in the social hierarchy are established.
\nSpecial care is needed to minimise aggression and potential injury when grouping, regrouping, or introducing an unfamiliar animal to a group. In all cases, animals should be grouped according to size and age and monitored for social compatibility on an ongoing basis.
\nSeparation from a group, and the single-housing of farm animals for even short periods can be a significant stress factor. Therefore, farm animals should not be single-housed unless justified on welfare or veterinary grounds. The exceptions, where animals may prefer to be housed singly include females about to give birth, and adult boars, which can be solitary under natural conditions.
\nSingle-housing on experimental grounds should be determined in consultation with the animal technician and with the competent person charged with advisory duties in relation to the well-being of the animals. Factors to be taken into consideration should include the nature of the individual animals, their likely reaction to separation from the group and the need for and duration of an habituation period. Where individual housing is necessary, animals should have visual, auditory and olfactory contact with conspecifics.
\n4.2. Enrichment As a stimulating environment is an important contributing factor to farm animal welfare, environmental enrichment should be provided to prevent boredom and stereotypic behaviour. All farm animal species naturally spend a large amount of time each day grazing, browsing or rooting for food, and in social interaction.
\nSuitable opportunities should be provided to meet these behaviours, by for example access to pasture, the provision of hay or straw or manipulable objects such as chains or balls.
\nEnrichment materials and devices should be changed at regular intervals since animals, in particular pigs, tend to lose interest in materials to which they have become accustomed.
\nSufficient enrichment devices should be provided to minimize aggressive behaviour 4.3. Enclosures - dimensions and flooring Appropriate design of farm-animal enclosures is essential to ensure that suitable space is available within the enclosure to allow the animals to carry out a range of normal behaviour. Floor type, drainage, provision of bedding (and hence ease of maintaining hygiene) and the social circumstances (group size and stability) will all impact on the space requirements for the animals.
\nAll enclosures should be designed and maintained to ensure that animals cannot be trapped or injured, for example in partitions or under feeding troughs.
\nAnimals should not be tethered, unless justified on scientific or veterinary grounds, in which case this should be for the minimum time period necessary.
\nSufficient space should be provided for each animal to stand up, lie comfortably, stretch and groom themselves, with access to a communal lying area and adequate room for feeding.
\nThe lying area should allow all animals to lie in lateral recumbency simultaneously, bearing in mind that whilst some farm animals, for example pigs, generally prefer to lie in physical contact with other conspecifics, others, such as equines prefer a degree of spatial separation. Under conditions of high temperatures, where animals need to lie with complete spatial separation to facilitate heat loss, a greater lying area should be allowed.
\nThe lying area should be provided with bedding to enhance comfort and reduce the incidence of pressure lesions. Where absence of bedding is necessary for experimental reasons, the floor should be designed and insulated to improve physical and, unless a suitable controlled environment is provided, thermal comfort.
\nThe height of enclosures should allow natural rearing and mounting behaviour.
\nEnclosure flooring materials should be non-injurious and provide adequate grip for unconstrained locomotion and posture change. Floors should be well maintained and replaced when necessary, as surface damage causing injuries will develop over time.
\n4.4. Feeding The diet should provide adequate nutrients to support the maintenance energy requirements of each animal, given the environmental conditions under which animals are kept. Additional energy will be needed to support pregnancy, lactation and growth, and should be tailored to the needs of the animals (for example, high genetic merit dairy cattle). Vitamin and mineral levels in the diet should also be considered, for example to avoid copper toxicity in sheep or the formation of urinary calculi in male castrated sheep, and where necessary, mineral licks should be provided.
\nWhen grazed grass is used as forage, stocking densities should be controlled to ensure adequate supplies are available to meet the nutritional requirements of all the animals. Where grass supply is limited, provision of additional feed in the field should be considered.
\nFor ruminants and horses, sudden changes in diet should be avoided, and new items introduced gradually, especially where high-energy feeds are introduced, or during periods of high metabolic demand, for example around parturition. Sufficient roughage should be provided.
\nIn group-housing systems, there should be sufficient food provided in sufficient numbers of sites for all individuals to access without risk of injury.
\nForage forms a significant component of the diets of farm animals. Since the amount of forage needed may preclude the use of bags for storage, forage items, including hay, straw, silage and root crops, should be stored in a way that minimizes deterioration in quality and the risk of contamination. A pest-control strategy should be in place in areas where forage and concentrates are stored.
\nWhen grass is cut for feeding housed animals (for example, zero-grazing), it should be done frequently, as cut grass heats up when stored and becomes unpalatable.
\n4.5. Watering Animals should have access at all times to fresh uncontaminated water, which should be readily accessible to all individuals within the social group. The number of drinking points or trough length should be sufficient to allow access to water for all individuals within the social group. Flow rates should meet the demands of the individual animal as these will vary depending on the feed, physiological status and ambient temperature, for example, lactating animals have much higher water demands than stock animals.
\n4.6. Substrate, litter, bedding and nesting material (See paragraph 4.8. of the General section) 4.7. Cleaning (See paragraph 4.9. of the General section) 4.8. Handling If handling and restraint facilities are required, these should be of robust construction and safe for animals and operators. In particular, a non-slip floor should be provided.
\nHandling and restraint facilities can take the form of basic equipment provided within the animal enclosure, or more complex, dedicated facilities serving the needs of the whole establishment. Handling and restraint facilities can be provided in the enclosure area, but care should be taken to ensure that these do not compromise space allowances or create a potentially hazardous physical obstruction in the enclosure.
\nThe dedicated facilities should, where possible, incorporate races and pens for separating animals; footbaths; special facilities for some species such as plunge dip baths and shearing pens for sheep; and an area to allow animals to recover after treatments. Ideally these facilities should be protected from prevailing weather conditions for the comfort of both animals and operators.
\nAnimals should be handled quietly and firmly and not be rushed along races and passageways. These should be designed, taking account of the natural behaviour of the animals, to facilitate ease of movement and minimise the risk of injury. Immobilisation devices should not cause injury or unnecessary distress. Aversive stimuli, physical or electrical, should not be used.
\nPassages and gates should be of sufficient width to permit two animals to pass freely, whereas races should be of width only to permit one-way movement.
\nRegular handling will allow habituation of animals to human contact. Where frequent handling is required, a programme of training and positive rewards should be considered to minimise fear and distress.
\nAnimals should not be closely confined except for the duration of any examination, treatment or sampling, whilst accommodation is being cleaned, collecting for milking, or loading for transport.
\n4.9. Humane killing All systems for the humane killing of farm animals should be designed to ensure that animals are not caused unnecessary distress. Careful handling by experienced staff, with minimum disruption to normal practices, will minimise distress to the animals, before they are humanely killed.
\nKilling should not be performed in areas where other animals are present, unless in the case of euthanasia of a badly injured animal where additional suffering may be caused by moving the animal.
\n4.10. Records (See paragraph 4.12. of the General section) 4.11. Identification Animals should be individually identified by the appropriate use of transponders, ear tags, plastic neck collars and/or rumen boluses. Freeze branding and tattooing may be less suitable. Hot branding should not be used.
\nIdentification devices should only be applied by trained personnel and at times when the procedure is likely to have minimal adverse effects on the animal. Tagged or tattooed ears should be checked regularly for signs of infection and lost tags should be replaced using the original tag hole where possible.
\nIf electronic devices of identification are used, they should be of the correct size and specification for the animal and should be checked regularly for function and the absence of any adverse reactions, for example, injection site reactions and rubbing or pharyngeal trauma as a result of improper bolus administration. b. Additional provisions for housing and care of cattle 1. Introduction Cattle (Bos taurus and Bos indicus) are social animals forming hierarchies based on dominance relationships among herd members. They will frequently develop affinity relationships with conspecifics. As ruminants, cattle spend much of the day foraging, followed by long rest periods. Cattle are normally docile and are easily habituated to human contact.
\n4.2. Enclosures - dimensions and flooring Table G.1. Cattle: Minimum enclosure dimensions and space allowances Where cattle are housed indoors, a bedded area sufficient to allow all of the animals to lie simultaneously will be provided.
\nWhere cubicles are not provided, this area will normally be approximately 70 % of the minimum floor area shown in the above table. The remainder of the enclosure can be non-bedded for feeding and exercise.
\nIf individual open-ended cubicles are provided as the bedded area, this area may be reduced in size, but the total number of cubicles should exceed animal numbers by 5 % to reduce competition and permit all animals to lie simultaneously. The design of cubicles is critical to their comfort, and specialist advice should be sought before installation. It should include consideration of the body size of the animal, a surface sufficiently cushioned to prevent injury, adequate stall drainage, correctly positioned stall dividers and head rails, lateral and vertical freedom for head movement and adequate lunging space. The height of the rear step should prevent dung entering the cubicle during cleaning, but not be of such a height that it causes damage to the feet during ingress and exit. The remainder of the enclosure can be non-bedded for feeding and exercise.
\nCubicle length is primarily determined by the weight of the animals. Cubicle width will vary, depending on the type of division used, but must be sufficient to allow the animals to lie comfortably without undue pressure being exerted by the divisions on vulnerable parts of the body. Specialist advice should be sought on the design and installation of cubicles.
\n4.3. Feeding The trough space provided will allow all animals to feed at the same time, unless the diet is available ad libidum (see above table). Horned cattle require more trough space than polled animals, and due allowance should be made for this.
\n4.4. Watering Water troughs: there should be sufficient linear trough space to allow 10 % of the animals to drink at one time. This equates to a minimum of 0.3 meter per 10 adult cattle. Lactating dairy cows will require 50 % more space.
\nWater bowls: a minimum of two water bowls should be provided when cattle are group-housed. For groups of over twenty cattle, at least one drinking bowl for ten animals should be provided.
\n4.5. Handling Where animals are milked by machine, equipment should be maintained to a high standard to prevent diseases such as mastitis.
\nHorned cattle may present a danger to personnel in confined spaces. Under these circumstances, it may be necessary to consider dehorning. Wherever possible, this should be carried out on calves under the age of eight weeks. c. Additional provisions for housing and care of sheep and goats 1. Introduction Sheep (Ovis aries) are grazing animals which, because of differences between breeds, for example fleece characteristics, will thrive in a wide range of climatic conditions.
\nUnder natural or farming conditions, sheep are very social, spending all their lives close to other members of the flock whom they recognise individually. As a species, they are therefore particularly disturbed by social isolation, a factor which should be taken into account when designing animal accommodation.
\nHowever, in terms of social cohesion there are recognisable variations between breeds as, for example, hill sheep tend not to flock closely together when left undisturbed.
\nGoats (Capra hircus) are a naturally inquisitive species and generally interact well with other animal species and humans. Like sheep, goats live in social groups and are disturbed by social isolation. Goats obtain their food by browsing more than by grazing and are best adapted to dry, firm ground. Their ability to climb is considerable and this facilitates their browsing. They prefer warm conditions and do not tolerate wet and windy conditions well.
\nRecently shorn animals may need higher environmental temperatures than fleeced animals.
\nHorned and polled goats should not be housed together.
\n4.2. Enrichment Sufficient raised areas of appropriate size and quantity to prevent dominant animals impeding access should be provided for goats.
\n4.3. Enclosures - dimensions and flooring Table G.2. Sheep and Goats: Minimum enclosure dimensions and space allowances *For adult goats, an increased minimum partition height may be required to prevent escape The entire enclosure should have a solid floor with appropriate bedding provided.
\n4.4. Watering In indoor enclosures for sheep and goats at least one drinking point per twenty animals should be provided.
\n4.5. Identification Dyeing the fleece or coat using recognised non-toxic agricultural marker products may be used for short-term experiments in short-wool breeds of sheep and in goats. d. Additional provisions for housing and care of pigs and mini-pigs 1. Introduction The domestic pig (Sus scrofa) is descended from the European wild boar. Although subject to intensive selection pressure over many generations for production characteristics of economic importance, domesticated pigs have largely retained the same behavioural repertoire as their ancestors. Under unrestricted conditions, they live in small family groups, show a crepuscular diurnal rhythm and have strongly developed exploratory behaviour.
\nThey are omnivorous and a large part of their active time is spent foraging for food. At birth, sows farrow in social isolation and construct a nest prior to parturition. Weaning is gradual and is completed at about four months of age, and piglets integrate gradually into the social group with little aggression.
\nMini-pigs differ from the farm pig in many significant respects. A number of different mini-pig strains have been developed by conventional breeding procedures in order to produce a small pig as a laboratory animal suitable for research purposes. For the purpose of this appendix, the mini-pig is defined as a small pig breed for usage for experimental and other scientific purposes and with an adult body weight typically not exceeding 60 kg, but can be as high as 150 kg in some strains. Because of this difference in body size at maturity, recommendations for farm pigs cannot always be extrapolated on a simple weight basis. Recommendations in this document apply to both types of pig, with specific requirements of mini-pigs annotated where necessary.
\nPigs may be kept in a uniform, temperature-controlled environment, in which case the whole room should be maintained within the thermoneutral zone. Alternatively, they may be kept in an enclosure with different microclimates, by providing localized heating or kennelling of the lying area and provision of adequate bedding material. A temperature gradient within the enclosure is considered beneficial. Outdoor pigs can compensate for lower ambient temperature provided that adequate shelter, with plentiful dry bedding, and additional food is provided.
\nTable G.3. Pigs and minipigs:
\nGuideline temperature ranges for single-housed animals In addition to body weight, suitable temperatures will vary according to sexual maturity, the presence or absence of bedding, group housing, and the caloric intake of the animal. Within the ranges given, animals of lower body weight, without bedding or with restricted caloric intake should be provided with the higher temperatures.
\nPiglets of low body weight are very sensitive to environmental temperature and should be provided with higher temperatures.
\nLitters of newborn piglets should be offered a lying area minimum of 30 °C, decreasing to 26 °C at the age of two weeks. For farrowing/lactation rooms, the minimum room temperature necessary is that required to allow an adequate temperature to be maintained in the piglet lying area, taking account of any local heat supply. Because of their high metabolic activity, lactating sows are prone to heat stress and farrowing room temperatures should ideally not exceed 24 °C.
\nPigs have a high motivation to explore and should be provided with an environment of sufficient complexity to allow expression of species-specific exploratory behaviour. All pigs should at all times have access to adequate amounts of materials for investigation and manipulation, including rooting, in order to reduce the risk of behavioural disorders.
\n4.2. Enclosures - dimensions and flooring Table G.4. indicates the minimum space requirement for an animal at any given liveweight. Enclosures should be designed to accommodate the highest liveweight that pigs will finally reach in any given circumstance. The number of enclosure changes should be minimised.
\nTable G.4. Pigs and Minipigs:
\nMinimum enclosure dimensions and space allowances * Pigs may be confined in smaller enclosures for short periods of time, for example by partitioning the main enclosure using dividers, when justified on veterinary or experimental grounds, for example where individual food consumption is required.
\nWhere pigs are housed individually or in small groups, greater space allowances per animal are required than for those in larger groups.
\nPigs should not be tethered at any time, and should not be confined in stalls or crates except for short periods of time necessary for feeding, insemination, veterinary or experimental purposes. The accommodation for sows and piglets should enable the fulfillment of the special behaviour patterns of the sow before and after parturition, and those of the piglets after birth. Thus, although the use of farrowing crates can safeguard piglet survival and welfare under some conditions, the close confinement of sows during the perinatal and suckling periods should be limited as far as possible and loose housing systems should be aimed at.
\nThe most appropriate flooring material will depend on the size and weight of the pigs. To facilitate provision of rooting/nesting substrate, it is desirable to provide a solid floor in the lying area of the pen. Slatted floors can be of value in facilitating good hygiene, but the slat and void dimensions should be appropriate to the size of the pigs in order to prevent foot injuries.
\n4.3. Feeding Pigs kept for meat production are typically fed ad libidum until approaching maturity, after which restricted feeding practices are necessary to avoid obesity. Mini-pigs are prone to become obese on conventional pig diets. Special reduced calorie diets with increased fibre content help to prevent this problem. Where feed restriction is necessary, pigs will show increased foraging motivation which can be expressed as increased activity and aggression, and development of stereotyped oral behaviours. To avoid these problems it is important to modify diets to enhance satiety, for example by provision of increased dietary fibre, and to provide an appropriate foraging substrate such as straw.
\nWith restricted feeding practices, young growing animals should be fed at least twice daily, whereas mature animals should be fed once daily, as an adequate meal size is important for the animal to reach satiety, and will minimise aggression. Where feeding is restricted, all individuals within the social group should have access to feed without causing aggression. Adequate trough space should be provided to ensure that animals can feed simultaneously. Recommended requirements are given in Table G.5.
\nWhere animals are housed singly or in small groups, the minimum trough space should be that for restricted feeding. When animals are housed in larger groups and fed ad libidum, trough space can be shared and a lower total space is required.
\nTable G.5. Pigs and minipigs:
\nMinimum feeding trough space allowances *Each animal on restricted feeding should be provided with at least the minimum trough space allowance.
\n4.4. Watering As pigs are particularly sensitive to the consequences of water deprivation, in cases where they are group-housed, at least two drinking points per unit - or a large bowl allowing more than one pig to drink at the same time - should be provided to prevent dominant animals impeding access to the drinking point. To achieve this, the following drinking space allowances are recommended.
\nTable G.6. Pigs and minipigs:
\nMinimum drinking point allowances Where pigs housed in larger groups are watered from an open trough, the minimum length of trough perimeter with access to water should be that allowing a single pig unimpeded access (as indicated in Table G.5. for restricted feeding space), or 12.5 mm of trough length per pig, whichever is the greater.
\nTable G.7. Pigs and minipigs: minimum drinking water flow rates for pigs 4.5. Substrate, litter, bedding and nesting material Bedding contributes to pig welfare in many ways. It enhances physical and thermal comfort (except in hot environmental conditions), can be eaten to provide gut fill and enhance satiety, and provides a substrate for foraging and nest-building behaviours. The extent to which each of these different benefits can be provided will depend on the nature of the bedding, with long straw providing the best overall material but alternatives such as chopped straw, sawdust, wood shavings and shredded paper conferring some benefits. Bedding should be non-toxic and, where possible, provide structural diversity to stimulate exploratory behaviour. Bedding should be provided for all pigs, unless precluded for experimental reasons, and is particularly important for farrowing sows, which have a strong motivation to perform nest-building behaviour, and for pigs on restricted feeding regimes, which have a strong motivation to express foraging behaviour. e. Additional provisions for housing and care of equines, including horses, ponies, donkeys and mules 1. Introduction Equines evolved as grazers of open grasslands, and domestic horses and ponies (Equus caballus) and donkeys (Equus asinus) have retained the behavioural repertoire of their ancestors. In the feral or free-ranging state, equines live in herds separated into small family groups or bands typically comprising one stallion, with several mares, foals and yearlings.
\nThe social structure develops as a clearly defined hierarchy, and individual animals within a group often form close pair bonds which it is important to recognise and maintain if possible.
\nMutual body care is a particularly important element in their social life.
\nUnlike ruminants, equines may graze continuously for many hours and under natural conditions they will spend fourteen to sixteen hours daily at this activity. Although their natural food is grass, herbs, and leaves, they are very selective regarding their choice of grass species and which part of the plant to eat.
\nTheir normal daily pattern is to graze, move a few steps and graze again. In this way they exercise as well as feed, and can cover long distances in a twenty-four hour period.
\nIdeally, management systems for equines should accommodate their natural behaviour, in particular the need to graze, exercise, and socialise. They are flight animals and hence easily startled and this should also be taken into account.
\nThe mane and tail of equines provide protection from adverse weather conditions and from flies and should not be removed or cut short. Where manes and tails need to be shortened or tidied this should be achieved by trimming rather than by pulling.
\nIn indoor enclosures, group-housing systems are preferred since these provide opportunities for socialisation and exercise.
\nFor horses it is essential that great care is taken to ensure social compatibility of groups The total space requirement for indoor enclosures will depend on whether animals also have daily access to additional areas for grazing and/or other forms of exercise. The figures below assume that such additional areas will be provided. If not, then space allowances should be increased significantly.
\nTable G.8. Equines: Minimum enclosure dimensions and space allowances * To ensure adequate space is provided, space allowances for each individual animal should be based on height to withers (WH) The shortest side should be a minimum of 1.5 x the wither height of the animal.
\nThe height of indoor enclosures should allow animals to rear to their full height to safeguard the welfare of the animals.
\nSlatted floors should not be used for equines.
\n4.2. Feeding Incorrect feeding of equines can have very serious welfare implications, causing illnesses such as colic and laminitis.
\nSince they naturally graze for long periods, they should ideally have constant access to forage in the form of fresh grass, hay, silage or straw. Where they are not given the opportunity to graze, they should be provided with a suitable quantity of long fibre/roughage every day. Where possible roughage should be fed on the ground or in suitably designed round bale feeders. Hay nets and racks should be designed and positioned to minimise risk of injury.
\nIf \"hard\" (concentrate) feed is offered to animals, particularly where the animals are housed in groups the feeding order should, where possible, follow the herd order of dominance.
\nWhere possible individuals should be fed separately. If this is not possible feeding points should be spaced at least 2.4 m apart and there should be at least one point per animal. Horses fed with concentrates need to be given small amounts of feed frequently.
\n4.3. Watering Horses prefer to drink from an open water surface, and this should be provided where possible. If automatic water nipple drinkers are used, animals may need to be trained to use them.
\n4.4. Identification Ear tags and tattooing should not be used in equines. If identification other than coat colour is required then transponders should be used. Numbered head-collars and hanging tags for halters have also been used successfully for identification.
\nH.
\nSpecies-specific provisions for birds a. General considerations 1. Introduction Birds are used for a broad range of purposes including fundamental research, applied veterinary medical studies and toxicology. Domestic fowl and turkeys are the most common laboratory birds and are often used in developmental studies and for the production of biological materials such as tissue and antibodies. Domestic poultry are also the most commonly used species in bird welfare research. Fowl are used for pharmaceutical safety and efficacy evaluation, whereas quail and other birds are more frequently the subjects of ecotoxicology studies. The other, less commonly used species such as the pigeon and wild birds are generally used in psychology and fundamental physiology or zoology research. Catching wild birds to use as experimental animals should be avoided unless it is necessary for the purposes of the experiment.
\nAlthough birds are essentially built for flight and share the same basic body plan, they have an extremely diverse range of adaptations for locomotion and feeding. Most species are adapted to range over relatively large, three-dimensional areas by one or more means of locomotion including flying, walking, running, swimming or diving, both while foraging and during migration.
\nMany species of birds are highly social and should be kept in stable groups wherever possible.
\nAdditional details are provided for the commonly bred and used laboratory species. It is essential that the housing and care of less commonly used species not included below pay due regard to their behavioural, physiological and social requirements.
\nHousing, husbandry and care protocols for such species should be researched before birds are obtained or used. Advice on requirements for other species (or if behavioural or breeding problems occur) should be sought from experts and care staff to ensure that any particular species needs are adequately addressed. Information and guidance on less commonly used species is available in the background information document.
\nDuring agricultural research when the aim of the research requires that the animals are kept under similar conditions to those under which commercial farm animals are kept, the keeping of the animals should at least conform with the standards laid down in the European Convention for the Protection of Animals kept for Farming Purposes (ETS No. 87) and in the related recommendations.
\nMany of the potential welfare problems specific to birds are associated with inappropriate pecking behaviour. This can be divided into aggressive pecking; feather pecking (where individuals either peck at other birds' feathers or pluck and pull at their own); and pecking at the skin of other birds, which can cause serious suffering and mortality if unchecked. The cause of inappropriate pecking is not always clear, but it is often possible to avoid outbreaks by rearing chicks with access to substrate that enables them to forage and peck appropriately.
\nChicks of all species should therefore be housed on solid floors with litter.
\nPrevention is especially important because fowl are attracted to damaged feathers, and the presence of a few feather-pecked birds may therefore lead to the rapid spread of injurious pecking. There are a number of measures that should be employed to avoid outbreaks of injurious pecking wherever possible and to reduce or prevent this behaviour should it occur. These include providing alternative pecking substrates such as foraging substrate, bunches of string, pecking blocks or straw; providing visual barriers; periodically or temporarily lowering the light intensity or using red light; and using light sources that emit UV rays. Anti-pecking sprays are commercially available and can be used to reduce the incidence of injurious pecking in the short term, but it will still be necessary to address the underlying causes of the behaviour. Some strains of domestic bird have been selectively bred so that inappropriate pecking is reduced and such strains should be researched and used wherever possible.
\nMethods which cause pain or distress, such as very low lighting (i.e. below 20 lux) for prolonged periods, or for physical modifications such as beak trimming, should not be used.
\nBirds housed in a poor quality environment that does not permit them to forage, exercise or interact with conspecifics will experience chronic distress that may be indicated by stereotypic behaviour, for example self-mutilation, feather pecking, and pacing. Such behaviour may be indicative of serious welfare problems and should lead to an immediate review of housing, husbandry and care.
\n2.2. Temperature Where appropriate, birds should be provided with a range of temperatures so that they can exercise a degree of choice over their thermal environment. All healthy adult quail, pigeon and domestic ducks, geese, fowl and turkeys should be housed at temperatures between 15 °C and 25 °C. It is essential to take account of the interaction between temperature and relative humidity, as some species will suffer from heat stress within the prescribed temperature range if relative humidity is too high.
\nFor species where there are no published guidelines on temperature and humidity, the climate experienced in the wild throughout the year should be researched and replicated as closely as possible.
\nHigher room temperatures than those indicated or a localised source of supplementary heat such as a brooder lamp may be required for sick or juvenile birds (see Table H.1.below).
\nTable H.1. Guidelines for temperatures and relative humidities for domestic fowl and turkeys, G. gallus domesticus and Meleagris gallopavo The chicks' behaviour should be used as a guide when setting brooder lamp temperature. If thermally comfortable, chicks of all species will be evenly spaced in the enclosure and making a moderate amount of noise; quiet chicks may be too hot and chicks making noisy distress calls may be too cold.
\n2.3. Humidity Relative humidity should be maintained within the range of 40 to 80% for healthy, adult, domestic birds.
\n2.4. Lighting Light quality and quantity are critically important for some species at certain times of the year for normal physiological functioning. Appropriate light and dark regimes for each species, life stage and time of year should be known before animals are acquired.
\nLights should not be abruptly switched off or on, but should be dimmed and raised in a gradual fashion. This is especially important when housing birds capable of flight. Dim night-lights may facilitate movement at night for heavy-bodied poultry strains. Where provided, care should be taken to ensure that circadian rhythms are not disrupted.
\n2.5. Noise Some birds, for example the pigeon, are considered to be able to hear very low frequency sounds. Although infrasound (sound below 16 Hz) is unlikely to cause distress, birds should be housed away from any equipment that emits low frequency vibrations whenever possible.
\nCareful health monitoring and parasite control should minimise health risks in birds with outdoor access.
\n4.1. Housing Birds should be housed in socially harmonious groups within the animal enclosure, unless the scientific procedures or welfare requirements make this impossible. Special care is needed when regrouping birds or introducing an unfamiliar bird to a group. In all cases, groups should be monitored for social compatibility on an ongoing basis.
\nSingle-housing of birds for even short periods can be a significant stress factor. Therefore, birds should not be single-housed unless justified on welfare or veterinary grounds.
\nSingle-housing on experimental grounds should be determined in consultation with the animal technician and with the competent person charged with advisory duties in relation to the well-being of the animals.
\nMost species of bird are social for at least part of the year and highly sensitive to family relationships, so the formation of appropriate, stable, harmonious groups should be given a high priority. As there are significant species variations, the optimal composition of groups, and at what stage in the birds' lives these should be created should be known before groups are formed and procedures are undertaken.
\n4.2. Enrichment A stimulating environment is a very important contributor to good bird welfare. Perches, dust and water baths, suitable nest sites and nesting material, pecking objects and substrate for foraging should be provided for species and individuals that will benefit from them unless there is scientific or veterinary justification for withholding such items. Birds should be encouraged to use all three dimensions of their housing for foraging, exercise and social interactions including play wherever possible.
\n4.3. Enclosures - dimensions and flooring Guidelines for enclosure dimensions are set out in the species-specific provisions for domestic fowl, domestic turkeys, quail, ducks and geese, pigeons and zebra finches. All birds, especially species that spend a significant proportion of their time walking, such as quail or fowl, should be housed on solid floors with substrate rather than on grid floors. Birds can be prone to foot problems, for example, overgrown claws, faecal accumulation and foot lesions such as foot-pad dermatitis due to standing on wet litter, on any type of flooring, and so frequent monitoring of foot condition is always necessary. In practice, it may be necessary to consider a compromise between solid- and grid flooring for scientific purposes. In such cases, birds should be provided with solid-floored resting areas occupying at least a third of the enclosure floor. Grid areas should be located under perches if faecal collection is required. To reduce the incidence of foot injuries, slats made of plastic should be used in preference to wire mesh wherever possible. If wire mesh has to be used, it should be of a suitable grid size to adequately support the foot and the wire should have rounded edges and be plastic coated.
\n4.4. Feeding Feeding patterns of wild birds vary widely and consideration should be given to the nature of the food, the way in which it is presented and the times at which it is made available. Diets that will meet the nutritional requirements of each species and promote natural foraging behaviour should be researched and formulated before any animals are obtained. Part of the diet or additional treats should be scattered on the enclosure floor to encourage foraging wherever appropriate. Dietary enrichment benefits birds, so additions such as fruit, vegetables, seeds or invertebrates should be considered where appropriate even if it is not possible to feed birds on their 'natural' diet. Where new foods are introduced, the previous diet should always be available so that birds will not go hungry if they are unwilling to eat new foods. Some species are more adaptable than others and advice should be sought on appropriate dietary regimes.
\nAs some species, particularly granivores, require grit to digest their food, these should be provided with appropriately-sized grit. Birds will select grit of the size they prefer if material of various sizes is provided. The grit should be renewed regularly. Dietary calcium and phosphorus should also be provided for birds in an appropriate form and at an appropriate level for each life stage, to prevent nutritional bone disease. Any such requirements should be thoroughly researched and catered for. Food can be supplied in feeders that are either attached to the side of the enclosure or standing on the enclosure floor. Space occupied by floor feeders is not available to the birds and should not be included in calculations of pen area. Wall mounted feeders do not occupy floor space but should be designed and fitted with care so that birds cannot become trapped underneath them. Chicks of some species (for example, domestic turkeys) may need to be taught to feed and drink in order to avoid dehydration and potential starvation.
\nFood for all species should be clearly visible and provided at several points to help prevent feeding problems.
\n4.5. Watering Water should be provided via nipple or cup drinkers, or as a continuous drinking channel. There should be sufficient drinkers or an adequate length of channel drinker to prevent dominant birds from monopolising them. One nipple or cup drinker should be provided for every three or four birds, with a minimum of two in each enclosure. Supplementary water may also be given as enrichment in birds' feed if appropriate.
\n4.6. Substrate, litter, bedding and nesting material Suitable substrates for birds should be absorbent, unlikely to cause foot lesions and of an appropriate particle size to minimise dust and prevent excessive accumulation on the birds' feet. Suitable substrates include chipped bark, white wood shavings, chopped straw or washed sand, but not sandpaper. Litter should be maintained in a dry, friable condition and be sufficiently deep to dilute and absorb faeces. Other suitable floor coverings include plastic artificial turf or deep pile rubber mats. A suitable pecking substrate such as pieces of straw should be scattered over the floor.
\nHatchlings and juvenile birds should be provided with a substrate that they can grip to avoid developmental problems such as splayed legs. Juvenile birds should also be encouraged if necessary, for instance by tapping with the fingers, to peck at the substrate to help prevent subsequent misdirected pecking.
\n4.7. Cleaning (See paragraph 4.9. of the General section).
\n4.8. Handling Suitable equipment for catching and handling should be available, for example, well maintained nets in appropriate sizes and darkened nets with padded rims for small birds.
\nIf the experimental procedure requires adult birds to be handled regularly, it is recommended from a welfare and experimental perspective to handle chicks frequently during rearing, as this reduces later fear of humans.
\n4.9. Humane killing The preferred method of killing for juvenile and adult birds is an overdose of anaesthetic using an appropriate agent and route. This is preferable to carbon dioxide inhalation, as carbon dioxide may be aversive.
\nAs diving birds and some others, for example, mallard ducks, can slow their heart rates and hold their breath for long periods, care should be taken when killing such species by inhalation to ensure that they do not recover. Ducks, diving birds and very young chicks should not be killed using carbon dioxide.
\n4.10. Records (See paragraph 4.12. of the General section) 4.11. Identification Non-invasive or minimally invasive methods such as noting physical differences, ringing with either closed or split rings and staining or dyeing the feathers are preferable to more invasive techniques such as electronic tagging or wing tagging.
\nCombinations of coloured leg rings minimise handling for identification, although due regard should be paid to any potential impact of colours on behaviour in some species. When using rings as temporary marking for rapidly growing chicks, regular checking is essential to ensure that the ring is not impeding the growth of the leg.
\nHighly invasive marking methods such as toe-clipping or web-punching cause suffering and should not be used. b. Additional provisions for housing and care of the domestic fowl, in stock and during procedures Domestic fowl (Gallus gallus domesticus) retain much of the biology and behaviour of the Jungle fowl from which they were domesticated. Behaviours that are most important to the species are nesting (in females), perching and using litter for foraging, scratching, pecking and dustbathing. Fowl are social and should be housed in groups of around five to twenty birds, with fewer males than females in adult groups, for example, a ratio of 1 to 5. Attempts have been made to select strains of fowl for reduced feather pecking or agonistic behaviour. The existence of appropriate strains of this type should be determined, and the feasibility of acquiring them, should be assessed for each project.
\nLaying hens should have access to nest boxes from at least two weeks before coming into lay and no later than 16 weeks of age.
\nSingle- or pair-housed birds should each have access to a nest box, with a ratio of at least one nest box per two birds provided in larger groups. Nest boxes should be enclosed and large enough to allow one hen to turn around. A loose substrate such as wood-shavings or straw should be supplied within nest boxes to promote nesting behaviour. Substrate should be regularly replaced and kept clean.
\nFowl should always be provided with the opportunity to perch, peck appropriate substrates, forage and dust-bathe from one day old. Suitable materials for dust-bathing include sand or soft wood shavings.
\nPerches should be 3 to 4 cm in diameter and round with a flattened top. The optimum height above the floor varies for different breeds, ages and housing conditions but perches should initially be fixed at 5 to 10 cm and for older birds at 30 cm above the floor. Perch heights should be adjusted in response to the birds' behaviour by seeing how easily birds can get on and off perches and move between them. All birds should be able to perch at the same time and every adult bird should be allowed 15 cm of perch at each level. Especially during the establishment of groups, birds should also be briefly observed during dark periods to confirm that all individuals are roosting.
\nFowl are highly motivated to perform 'comfort behaviour' such as wing flapping, feather ruffling and leg stretching, which help to maintain strong leg bones. Birds should therefore be housed in floor enclosures large enough to permit all of these behaviours whenever possible. Ideally, birds should be housed with outdoor access; appropriate cover such as bushes is essential to encourage fowl to go outside.
\nFlooring for fowl should be solid, as this enables the provision of substrate to encourage foraging and possibly help to reduce the incidence of feather pecking. If fowl need to be caged for scientific purposes, they should be housed in enclosures designed to address behavioural requirements. If there are scientific reasons for not providing a solid floor, a solid area with loose substrate and items such as bunches of string, pecking blocks, rope, turf or straw should be provided for pecking.
\nFowl strains developed for rapid growth rates (broilers) are highly susceptible to lameness and their use should be avoided wherever possible. If broilers are used, individuals should be assessed for lameness at least weekly and grown more slowly than those reared commercially unless growth rate is essential for the study.
\nTable H.2. Domestic fowl: Minimum enclosure dimensions and space allowances Where these minimum enclosures sizes cannot be provided for scientific reasons, the duration of the confinement should be justified by the experimenter and determined in consultation with the animal technician and with the competent person charged with advisory duties in relation to the well-being of the animals. In such circumstances, birds can be housed in smaller enclosures containing appropriate enrichment and with a minimum floor area of 0.75 m2. These can be used to house two laying birds or small groups of birds in accordance with the space allowances given above. c. Additional provisions for housing and care of the domestic turkey, in stock and during procedures Wild turkeys regularly utilise a diverse range of environments and perform a variety of behaviours including dust-bathing, foraging and hunting. The social behaviour of the wild turkey is complex, particularly during the breeding season. Domestic turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) retain many of the characteristics of wild birds but there are some fundamental differences, for example domestic turkeys are unable to fly but have retained the ability to run quickly, and jump and glide, especially at younger ages.
\nDomestic turkeys are highly social and should not be single-housed. Stable groups should be formed as soon as birds are acquired and adequate monitoring is essential as injurious feather-pecking and head-pecking can occur from the first day of life.
\nLameness is a common problem and needs to be carefully monitored. Veterinary advice should be sought on a policy for dealing with lameness.
\nTurkeys should be provided with perches placed at a height where birds on the ground are not able easily to peck and tug at the feathers of perching birds. However, if birds are older and less agile, the access to perches should be facilitated by special equipment such as ramps. Where this is not possible, perches should be placed at a low height (for example at 5 cm).
\nThe shape and size of the perch should be in accordance with the rapidly growing claws of the birds. Perches should be ovoid or rectangular with smoothed corners and made of wood or plastic.
\nSubstrate for dust-bathing should always be provided. Suitable materials are fresh sawdust or sand. Straw bales may be used for enrichment and to provide a refuge from dominant birds, but will need to be frequently replaced and older, heavier birds may need ramps to gain access to them.
\nTable H.3. Domestic Turkey: Minimum enclosure dimensions and space allowances All enclosure sides should be at least 1.5 m long. Where these minimum dimensions cannot be provided for scientific reasons, the duration of the confinement should be justified by the experimenter and determined in consultation with the animal technician and with the competent person charged with advisory duties in relation to the well-being of the animals. In such circumstances, birds can be housed in smaller enclosures containing appropriate enrichment and with a minimum floor area of 0.75 m2 and a minimum height of 50 cm for birds below 0.6 kg, 75 cm for birds below 4 kg, and 100 cm for birds over 4 kg. These can be used to house small groups of birds in accordance with the space allowances given above. d. Additional provisions for housing and care of quail, in stock and during procedures Wild quail live in small social groups and devote much of their time to scratching and foraging for seeds and invertebrates on the ground. The preferred habitat of many species is dense vegetation such as grasslands, bushes alongside rivers and cereal fields. Domestication does not appear substantially to have altered quail behaviour, so it is essential to design housing systems that respect this and allow the provision of substrate for scratching, pecking and dustbathing, nestboxes and cover wherever possible. The housing of quail in aviaries or pens as opposed to cages is therefore strongly recommended.
\nQuail (Coturnix spp; Colinus virginianis; Lophortyx californica; Excalfactoria chinensis) should be group housed in either all female or mixed-sex groups. Where the sexes are mixed, the ratio of males to females should be low (for example, 1 to 4) to reduce aggression between males and injuries to females. It may be possible to pair-house males if stable pairs are formed during rearing. The likelihood of aggressive pecking leading to skin lesions and feather loss is reduced if quail are not kept under intensive conditions and established groups are not mixed.
\nQuail are capable of extremely rapid startle responses, which can lead to head injuries. Staff should therefore always approach birds slowly and calmly and quail should be provided with cover and environmental enrichment, especially early in life, in order to reduce fear. Quail chicks should have access to coloured objects such as balls, tubing and cubes to alleviate fear of both human beings and novel stimuli in adult birds. Adult birds should be given pecking objects such as stones, pine cones, balls and branches of vegetation. Sand, wood shaving or straw substrate for foraging and a place to which the birds can withdraw should be provided, with additional dust baths of sand or sawdust if the foraging substrate is not suitable for dust bathing. Laying hens should have access to nest boxes and nesting material, such as hay.
\nIf quail need to be housed in cages, consideration should be given to combining enclosures and adding enrichment items. Solid enclosure roofs may make birds feel safer, although this could result in unacceptably low light levels in lower enclosures if birds are housed in racks. Birds should be cage-housed for the minimum possible period because many welfare problems become more severe with age, especially in birds kept for one year or more.
\nTable H.4. Quail: Minimum enclosure dimensions and space allowances. * The enclosure roof should be made of pliant material to reduce the risk of head injuries. e. Additional provisions for housing and care of ducks and geese, in stock and during procedures Domestic ducks and geese commonly used in research and testing include Anas platyrhynchos, Anser anser domesticus and Cairina moschata. All waterfowl are primarily adapted for locomotion and feeding in water, which is also very important for 'comfort' behaviours such as bathing and preening. Ducks and geese should be provided with a pond with a mixture of stones and grit on the bottom, both to increase the birds' behavioural repertoire and to encourage adequate maintenance of the feathers.
\nThe very minimum that waterfowl should be able to do is immerse their heads under water and shake water over the body. Drinkers and ponds for waterfowl should be located over grid areas with drains beneath to reduce flooding.
\nDomestic geese and ducks have been selected for meat and egg production, but all breeds retain most of their 'wild type' behaviour and are generally more nervous and easily upset than other domestic birds, especially when they are moulting.
\nWithin twenty-four hours of hatching and throughout the first week of life, water should be provided to facilitate swimming behaviour, but care should be taken to minimise the risk of drowning by, for example, the use of a shallow bowl. After the first week, a shallow pond (dimensions as in table H.6) with large stones on the bottom should be provided with food or grit scattered among the stones to encourage dabbling or diving, as appropriate. In the absence of the parent birds, access to ponds for juvenile birds should only be under supervision to ensure that they can leave the water and do not become chilled. This should continue until they are clearly capable of leaving the water unaided and their waterproof feathers have begun to emerge.
\nIt is not necessary to control the temperature of the water.
\nPonds should be regularly cleaned and water replaced as necessary to ensure good water quality.
\nDucks and geese should be housed on solid floors and have sufficient space to permit foraging, walking, running and wing flapping. A complex environment should be provided, including for example natural or artificial cover, boxes and straw bales. Ducks and geese should always be kept outdoors or have access to outdoor runs unless there is scientific or veterinary justification for keeping them indoors. Birds housed with outside access should be kept secure from predators and should be supplied with a dry shelter to enable them to rest. Vegetation for cover and/or grazing should be provided as applicable.
\nSerious consideration should be given to supplying other features of the habitat that are likely to be important to each species whether birds are housed indoors or outdoors. This includes shallow water with vegetation for dabbling ducks, turf for geese and deeper water with large stones for species whose natural habitat is along rocky coastlines.
\nDucks and geese should be housed in appropriately sized groups wherever possible and the amount of time when any individual is left alone should be minimised. Many species become territorial during the breeding season, however, so it may be necessary to reduce group sizes and ensure that there is sufficient enclosure space to reduce the risk of injury, particularly to female birds.
\nTable H.5. Ducks and geese: Minimum enclosure dimensions and space allowances * This should include a pond of minimum area 0.5 m2 per 2m2 enclosure with a minimum depth of 30cm. The pond may contribute up to 50% of the minimum enclosure size.